Practical implementation of a number of important technologies has been slowed by limitations in state-of-the-art energy storage devices. For example, current lithium ion batteries exhibit insufficient capacities to enable the extended driving range demanded by the electric vehicle market. Various types of energy storage devices show promise, including those having electrodes comprising Li, Na, Zn, Si, Mg, Al, Sn, and Fe. In another example, lithium sulfur batteries are attractive because of the large specific capacity and energy density. However, some obstacles must be overcome before any of these devices can successfully be implemented. In lithium sulfur batteries, the formation of soluble long chain polysulfides during charge/discharge can lead to the gradual loss of active mass from the cathode into the electrolyte and onto the lithium anode, continuously forming a passivation film. As a result, severe self-discharge and capacity decay upon cycling are usually observed, hindering the practical application of lithium sulfur batteries. Similarly, in lithium-ion batteries, metal plating on the anode, particularly at high charge rates, can lead to cell shorting and combustion—thus presenting a major safety concern. Improved energy storage devices with stable electrochemical performance and improved safety are needed to enable the devices requiring electrical power.